Congenital Lung
Diseases
Adam Guttentag M.D.
Congenital Lung Diseases
•
Developmental anomalies
–
Aplasia/hypoplasia/horseshoe lung
–
Foregut malformations
•
TE fistula
•
Sequestration spectrum
–
Vascular anomalies (veins, arteries,both)
•
Surfactant deficiency
–
Prematurity
–
Abnormal surfactant production
•
Thoracic anomalies—secondary lung
hypoplasia
–
Congenital diaphragmatic hernia
–
Skeletal dysplasias
Developmental Anomalies:
The “Sequestration Spectrum”
•
Bronchopulmonary Sequestration
•
Congenital Cystic Adenomatoid
Malformation
•
Congenital Lobar Emphysema
•
Bronchogenic Cyst
•
Scimitar Syndrome
•
Pulmonary AVM
Congenital Lung Anomalies
may include:
•
Dysplastic pulmonary tissue
•
Anomalous arterial supply
•
Anomalous venous drainage
•
Communication with bronchial tree or GI tract
•
Gross structural lung anomalies
•
Diaphragmatic defects
•
Categorization depends on combination of findings,
but may be difficult (“overlap syndromes”)
“Sequestration Spectrum”
pulmonary
vascular
Bronchogenic cyst
CCAM
CLE
Sequestration
Scimitar syndrome
AVM’s
Embryology
•
Foregut
–
Esophagus, tracheobronchial tree, stomach, duodenum
•
GI tract and tracheobronchial tree separate at 26 days
•
Primitive lung buds send branches into lung mesoderm up to
16th week
•
Peripheral bronchi form acinar structures 16th-24th weeks
•
Saccular proliferation and alveolar development up until
birth
•
Connections of mesodermal vasculature to primitive aorta
normally regress
•
Failure to regress may lead to abnormal systemic
connections
Sequestration
•
Abnormal lung tissue without normal
bronchial connection and with
systemic
arterial supply
•
Intralobar 75%
•
Extralobar 25%
Sequestration - Imaging
Features
•
Abnormal opacity in medial lung base on CXR
•
CT shows abnormal lung parenchyma well
•
Arteriography classically used to show systemic
supply, venous drainage
•
MRI or CT now used to evaluate for systemic artery
and should replace arteriography
•
US prenatal / neonatal --homogeneous echogenicity
(ELS)
Intralobar Sequestration
•
Probably
acquired
in most cases
–
Very rare in infants
–
Only 50% discovered before age 20
•
Sx: cough, sputum, recurrent pneumonia
•
Etiology - many hypotheses
–
early bronchial obstruction with recurrent infection
–
chronic inflammation
–
parasitization of systemic vessels in the pulmonary
ligament
Intralobar Sequestration
•
Above and contiguous with the diaphragm
within otherwise normal lung
•
Systemic arterial supply
–
73% descending aorta
–
21% upper abd aorta, celiac, or splenic artery
–
16% multiple supplying arteries
•
95% with
pulmonary venous drainage
(L to L shunt)
•
98% in lower lobes (60% on L)
Intralobar Sequestration
Radiology
•
Usually appears as space occupying mass
or persistent consolidation
–
Purely soft tissue vs. air containing
–
Often multiple air-containing cystic areas
6/74
5/75
Pulmonary
venous drainage
Intralobar sequestration
with bronchial
communication
Extralobar Sequestration
•
6% of congenital lung lesions
•
65% with associated congenital anomalies (CDH
most common)
•
M:F = 4:1
•
Etiology: probably abnormal budding from
primitive foregut forming accessory lung with its
own blood supply and pleural covering
•
Communication with GI tract rarely persists
Extralobar Sequestration
•
Separate visceral pleural covering
•
90% on left, almost always in medial base
between lung and diaphragm
•
95% with
systemic arterial supply
•
>80% with
systemic venous drainage
(azygos)
•
Unusual locations
–
Mediastinum, retroperitoneum, pericardial space,
diaphragm
•
May have assoc. bronchogenic cyst, CCAM
Extralobar Sequestration -
Clinical
•
Sx: dyspnea, cyanosis, feeding problems
•
61% discovered by age 6 mo.
•
Only 10% Asx (much less than ILS)
•
Rarely presents as recurrent infection
Extralobar Sequestration -
Radiology
•
May be seen
in utero
as a mass or in
assoc. with polyhydramnios or hydrops
•
High output CHF
•
Solid mass in LLL
Sequestration
Intralobar vs Extralobar
Feature
Intralobar
Extralobar
Pleura
Within normal lobar
pleura
Separate pleural
investment
Sex incidence
M=F
M>F
Laterality
60% on left
80-90% on left
Arterial supply
Systemic
Systemic
Venous drainage
Pulmonary vein
Azygos, hemiazygos or
portal vein
Foregut communication
Very rare
More common
Other congenital anomalies
Uncommon
Common
Diagnosis in neonates
Rare
Common
Neonate with abnormal prenatal US
Congenital Cystic
Adenomatoid Malformation
(CCAM)
•
Congenital dysplastic lesion of lung
•
25% of congenital lung lesions
•
Communicate with bronchial tree
•
Pulmonary arterial and venous
connections
•
R=L Upper lobes predominate slightly
CCAM - Clinical Features
•
M=F
•
Majority present in neonatal period
•
Acute respiratory distress
•
Decreased breath sounds, cardiac
shift, hyperresonance
•
Large lesions may cause hypoplasia
of normal lung
•
Unusual cause of fetal hydrops
CCAM - Subtypes
•
Type I
: one or more large cysts (>2cm) with
respiratory epithelium.
>50% of cases
.
•
Type II
: cysts all <2cm, cuboidal epithelium.
Associated with other severe congenital
malformations.
40% of cases
•
Type III
: tiny cysts, usually <5mm. Usually
involves entire lobe or lung.
<10% of cases
.
CCAM - Prenatal Imaging
•
Polyhydramnios, fetal hydrops
secondary to obstructed venous return
•
Mass may be echogenic (type III) or
show cysts of varying size and number
(types I and II)
•
10 - 20% shrink on follow-up
•
Prenatal DDX: bronchogenic cyst,
sequestration, CDH
CCAM - Post-natal Imaging
Type I: unilateral air-filled lesion. May be very large
and herniate across the midline.
–
Cysts may progressively expand and worsen respiratory
distress.
–
Initially may appear solid due to retained fluid in cyst(s).
–
Air fluid levels may be seen.
•
Type II: Small uniform cysts may be seen.
•
Type III: Solid mass or consolidation is usual
appearance. Generally large.
CCAM - Treatment and
Prognosis
•
Treatment: surgical removal--risk of infection
or neoplasm
•
Fetal surgery or shunting may be considered to
protect unaffected lung for large masses.
•
Prognosis: depends on size of lesion and status
of unaffected lung.
•
Poor prognosis if fetal hydrops present.
•
Type II lesions may have worse prognosis due
to assoc. renal and cardiac anomalies.
Air filled type I CCAM
Air filled Type I CCAM
Prenatal US type I
CCAM
heart
Bubbly type II CCAM
CCAM - Differential Dx
•
if air filled
CLE
•
if solid by US
Sequestration
(extralobar)
•
if bubbly
CDH
•
if single large cyst
Bronchogenic cyst
•
All can present in neonate as a mass on
CXR
•
CT is often helpful in making the dx
Congenital Lobar Emphysema
•
a.k.a. ”
neonatal lobar hyperinflation
”
•
Overinflated lobe with compression of normal
lung
•
Causes:
–
Abnormal bronchial cartilage with atresia or
obstruction
–
50% with bronchial obstruction
–
Abnormality of lung development e.g. too many or
too few alveoli
•
LUL 43% RML 35% RUL 20%
Congenital Lobar Emphysema
•
Usually presents within 1-2 months as
respiratory distress.
•
In bronchial atresia/compression,
aeration is via collateral air drift.
•
Associated cardiac anomalies
•
May do well with conservative
management.
Congenital Lobar Emphysema
Radiology
•
Hyperlucent and expanded area of lung acting
as a mass
•
Maintains size on expiratory or decubitus view
•
“Mediastinal swing” on fluoroscopy
•
CXR may show a “solid” mass initially
•
CT shows normal vessels in hyperexpanded
lobe
CLE of LUL
CLE of RML
CCAM vs CLE
T1WI
T2WI
Bronchogenic Cyst
•
Mediastinal >> pulmonary (6:1)
•
Mediastinal - mostly near carina
•
Pulmonary - lower lobes predominate (R=L)
•
Usually Asx, may present with infection or
compression effects
•
Pulmonary cysts usually contain air
•
Cyst contents watery to mucinous, with
variable
attenuation
•
No enhancement!
Bronchogenic Cyst
•
Lined by respiratory epithelium
•
May have smooth muscle, mucus
glands, cartilage in wall
•
May have fibrous connection to
esophagus or bronchial tree
Bronchogenic Cyst
•
May contain a variety of fluids:
–
Simple serous fluid (40%)
–
Hemorrhagic
–
Proteinaceous
–
Milk of Calcium
•
Histologically often indistinguishable
from GI duplication cyst
Bronchogenic Cyst - Imaging
•
CXR: retrocardiac/subcarinal oval mass
•
CT: smoothly defined, no discernable wall,
–
0-60 HU
•
MRI: very bright on T2WI, low to high signal
on T1WI
•
No enhancement with IV contrast
CECT
PDWI
T1WI
T2WI
Duplication cyst
Scimitar Syndrome
•
“pulmonary venolobar syndrome”, “hypogenetic
lung syndrome”
•
Anomalous venous return to IVC
•
Systemic arterial supply
–
Small RPA
•
Abnormal development of right lung, usually
small in size
•
Abnormal bronchial branching in right lung
•
May have abnormal lobation
•
Varying degrees of abnormality of parenchyma, arteries
and veins
Scimitar Syndrome
•
25% with other C-V anomalies
•
1/3 show clear anomalous vein on CXR
•
Often Asx, may have:
–
Hemoptysis from bronchial collaterals
–
Symptomatic L
R shunt
–
Recurrent infection
Pulmonary AVM
•
Majority congenital
•
Persistence of fetal anastamotic capillaries
•
Pathology = cavernous hemangioma
•
Simple type
: single feeding and draining vessels
(79%)
•
Complex type
: multiple feeders, drainers
•
~5% with systemic feeders, occasionally
systemic drainage
Pulmonary AVM
•
Most found in 3rd or 4th decades
•
1/3 found in pts with Osler-Weber-Rendu
syndrome
•
<20% of O-W-R pts have AVM’s
•
1/3 multiple
•
8% bilateral
Pulmonary AVM
Symptoms & Signs
•
50% symptomatic (classic triad: DOE, cyanosis,
clubbing)
•
R
L shunt (murmur or bruit may be heard)
•
Paradoxical embolization and brain abscesses
–
Loss of lung’s filter function
•
Polycythemia due to chronic hypoxia
•
Occasional hemoptysis
Pulmonary AVM
Radiography
•
Plain film
: one or more circumscribed nodules.
Enlarged feeding and draining vessels may be
seen. Ca
++
rare
•
Grow over time
•
CT
: CT angiography can now easily show
lesions AND establish size and number of
feeders
•
MRI
: GRE or MRA imaging can show flow in
nodules
Pulmonary AVM - Treatment
•
Ablation recommended for all
>3mm
•
Angiographic placement of coils,
detachable balloons preferred over
resection
That’s all, folks!